10 Important Events in the History of Latin America

10 Important Events in the History of Latin America Latin America has been always shaped by events as much as by people and leaders. In the long and turbulent history of the region, there were wars, assassinations, conquests, rebellions, crackdowns, and massacres. Which was the most important? These ten were selected based on international importance and effect on the population. It is impossible to rank them on importance, so they are listed in chronological order. 1. Papal Bull Inter Caetera and the Treaty of Tordesillas (1493–1494) Many people do not know that when Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas, they already legally belonged to Portugal. According to previous papal bulls of the 15th century, Portugal held claim to any and all undiscovered lands west of a certain longitude. After Columbus return, both Spain and Portugal laid claims to the new lands, forcing the pope to sort things out. Pope Alexander VI issued the bull Inter Caetera in 1493, declaring that Spain owned all new lands west of a line 100 leagues (about 300 miles) from the Cape Verde Islands. Portugal, not pleased with the verdict, pressed the issue and the two nations ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established the line at 370 leagues from the islands. This treaty essentially ceded Brazil to the Portuguese while keeping the rest of the New World for Spain, therefore laying the framework for the modern demographics of Latin America. 2. The Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires (1519–1533) After the New World was discovered, Spain soon realized that it was an incredibly valuable resource that should be pacified and colonized. Only two things stood in their way: the mighty Empires of the Aztecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru, who would have to be defeated in order to establish rule over the newly-discovered lands. Ruthless conquistadores under the command of Hernn Cortà ©s in Mexico and Francisco Pizarro in Peru accomplished just that, paving the way for centuries of Spanish rule and enslavement and marginalization of New World natives. 3.  Independence from Spain and Portugal (1806–1898) Using the Napoleonic invasion of Spain as an excuse, most of Latin America declared independence from Spain in 1810. By 1825, Mexico, Central  America, and South America were free, soon to be followed by Brazil. Spanish rule in the Americas ended in 1898 when they lost their final colonies to the United States following the Spanish-American War. With Spain and Portugal out of the picture, the young American republics were free to find their own way, a process that was always difficult and often bloody. 4.  The Mexican-American War (1846–1848) Still smarting from the loss of Texas a decade before, Mexico went to war with the United States in 1846 after a series of skirmishes on the border. The Americans invaded Mexico on two fronts and captured Mexico City in May of 1848. As devastating as the war was for Mexico, the peace was worse. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Wyoming to the United States in exchange for $15 million and forgiveness of about $3 million more in debts. 5. The War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) The most devastating war ever fought in South America, the War of the Triple Alliance pitted Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil against Paraguay. When Uruguay was attacked by Brazil and Argentina in late 1864, Paraguay came to its aid and attacked Brazil. Ironically, Uruguay, then under a different president, switched sides and fought against its former ally. By the time the war was over, hundreds of thousands had died and Paraguay was in ruins. It would take decades for the nation to recover. 6. The War of the Pacific (1879–1884) In 1879, Chile and Bolivia went to war after spending decades bickering over a border dispute. Peru, which had a military alliance with Bolivia, was drawn into the war as well. After a series of major battles at sea and on land, the Chileans were victorious. By 1881 the Chilean army had captured Lima and by 1884 Bolivia signed a truce. As a result of the war, Chile gained the disputed coastal province once and for all, leaving Bolivia landlocked, and also gained the province of Arica from Peru. The Peruvian and Bolivian nations were devastated, needing years to recover. 7.  The Construction of the Panama Canal (1881–1893, 1904–1914) The completion of the  Panama Canal  by Americans in 1914 marked the end of a remarkable and ambitious feat of engineering. The results have been felt ever since, as the canal has drastically changed worldwide shipping. Less known are the political consequences of the canal, including the  secession  of Panama from Colombia (with the encouragement of the United States) and the profound effect the canal has had on the internal reality of Panama ever since. 8.  The Mexican Revolution (1911–1920) A revolution of impoverished peasants against an entrenched wealthy class, the Mexican Revolution shook the world and forever altered the trajectory of Mexican politics. It was a bloody war, which included horrific battles,  massacres, and assassinations. The  Mexican Revolution  officially ended in 1920 when Alvaro Obregà ³n became the last general standing after years of conflict, although the fighting continued for another decade. As a result of the revolution, land reform finally took place in Mexico, and the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party), the political party that rose from the rebellion, stayed in power until the 1990s. 9.  The Cuban Revolution  (1953–1959) When  Fidel Castro, his brother  Raà ºl  and a ragged band of followers  attacked the barracks at Moncada  in 1953, they may not have known they were taking the first step to one of the most significant revolutions of all time. With the promise of economic equality for all, the rebellion grew until 1959, when Cuban President  Fulgencio Batista  fled the country and victorious rebels filled the streets of Havana. Castro established a communist regime, building close ties  with  the Soviet Union, and stubbornly defied every attempt the  United States  could think of to remove him from power. Ever  since  that time, Cuba has either been a festering sore of totalitarianism in an increasingly democratic  world  or a beacon of hope for all anti-imperialists, depending on your point of view. 10. Operation Condor (1975–1983) In the mid-1970s, the governments of the southern cone of  South America- Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay,  Bolivia, and Uruguay- had several things in common. They were ruled by conservative regimes, either dictators or military juntas, and they had a growing problem with opposition forces and dissidents.  They, therefore,  established Operation Condor, a collaborative effort to round up and kill or otherwise silence their enemies. By the time it ended, thousands were dead or missing and the trust of South Americans in their leaders was forever shattered. Although new facts come out occasionally and some of the worst perpetrators have been brought to justice, there are still many questions about this sinister operation and those behind it. Sources and Further Reading Gilbert, Michael Joseph, Catherine LeGrand, and Ricardo Donato Salvatore. Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U.S.-Latin American Relations. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1988.LaRosa, Michael and German R. Mejia. An Atlas and Survey of Latin American History, 2nd edition. New York: Routledge, 2018.Moya, Jose C. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.Weber, David J., and Jane M. Rausch. Where Cultures Meet: Frontiers in Latin American History. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman Littlefield, 1994.

Edwin OConnors

Edwin OConnors novel The Last Hurrah illustrates a remarkable view of the difficult and complex life of the Irish-American community of Boston in the 1950s. The story is presented though political context focusing on social and ethnic concerns as well as prejudice and stereotyping. This is a true story of politics, corruption, the rise and success of the Irish immigration, the opposition but most of all it is a story of people.There are a number of important elements that are unique to the Irish community in Boston and also significant to the life of Skeffington. As a descendent of the Irish immigration Frank Skeffington values historical perspective, religion and work ethic. He realizes the struggles of his parents, and is proud of his past we are not all descended from kings he told his nephew. While running his campaign Skeffington experiences strong opposition from James Curley, a forceful and corrupt political force in the community in Boston. Curley demonstrates !a clearly d etermined form of corruption without concern for the ethnic or political history of the Irish immigrant community. Although Curley chooses to display his hatred toward the Irish through politics, his intent is extremely clear, which reveals strong evidence of discrimination displayed not only directly towards immigrants but descendants of those immigrants as well. The major conflicts developed are not just the products of the perceived political situation or corruption, but are also related to common social and religious perspectives indicative of the community Once politics were the only way a man could climb out of the slum. Frank Skeffington, who originated out of the Irish getto, unveils an important lesson, such that, in order to become a powerful adult one must comprehend their past and make determined efforts to challenge complicated issues. By no means could Skeffington change the future direction of hi...

Why markets generally fail to achieve social efficiency Essay

Why markets generally fail to achieve social efficiency - Essay Example On the other hand, if the marginal cost to society exceeds the marginal benefit, then the social efficiency is low in that case. Whereas, when MSC and MSB are equal, it is referred to be at an optimum level (Suneja, pp.147, 2000). It is very difficult to achieve social efficiency and real markets fail to accomplish it because their marginal social costs do not equal the marginal social benefits. There are a number of reasons behind market failure. Externalities: â€Å"A market is not likely to lead to market efficiency if the deeds of the producers or consumers affect people other than themselves† (Sloman & Sutcliffe, pp.430, 2004). Externalities occur when society fails to make adequate compensation for the production of goods and services as well as for the consumption of these products. This is attributable to the ‘spillover effect’ this leads. Since the pricing system does not account for the marginal social costs and benefits that are attached to the compensa tion of these products, externalities exist, which may often lead to market failure. Social cost is the addition of private cost and the externalities. Let us take an example of a chemical industry. If a chemical industry release by products into a river or atmosphere, it is creating negative externalities that